Glossary Phylosophy

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A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

A

  1. Abduction: Inference to the best explanation.
  2. Abelard, Peter: Medieval logician known for scholastic dialectic.
  3. Absolute idealism: Hegel’s view that reality is ultimately rational.
  4. Absurdism: Belief that humans seek meaning in a meaningless universe:contentReference[oaicite:0]{index=0}.
  5. Accidentalism: View that events happen by chance rather than necessity:contentReference[oaicite:1]{index=1}.
  6. Acosmism: Denial of the reality of the universe in favour of a single absolute:contentReference[oaicite:2]{index=2}.
  7. Aestheticism: Movement advocating art for art’s sake:contentReference[oaicite:3]{index=3}.
  8. Agnostic atheism: Combination of agnosticism and atheism:contentReference[oaicite:4]{index=4}.
  9. Agnostic theism: Belief in God while holding divine existence unknown:contentReference[oaicite:5]{index=5}.
  10. Agnosticism: View that the existence of deities is unknown or unknowable:contentReference[oaicite:6]{index=6}.
  11. Albertus Magnus: Scholastic thinker who integrated Aristotelianism with theology.
  12. Al‑Farabi: Medieval Islamic philosopher and political theorist.
  13. Al‑Kindi: Early Arab philosopher who introduced Greek thought to the Islamic world.
  14. Altruism: Ethical view stressing duty to serve others:contentReference[oaicite:7]{index=7}.
  15. Amor fati: Stoic acceptance and love of one’s fate:contentReference[oaicite:8]{index=8}.
  16. Anarchism: Political philosophy opposing centralized government:contentReference[oaicite:9]{index=9}.
  17. Anarcho‑capitalism: Libertarian theory favouring private law and markets:contentReference[oaicite:10]{index=10}.
  18. Anarcho‑primitivism: Advocacy of a return to pre‑civilization lifestyles:contentReference[oaicite:11]{index=11}.
  19. Anarcho‑syndicalism: Anarchism aligned with labour unions for worker control:contentReference[oaicite:12]{index=12}.
  20. Anaximenes: Pre‑Socratic who proposed air as the archê.
  21. Anima mundi: Concept of a universal world soul:contentReference[oaicite:13]{index=13}.
  22. Animism: Belief that natural objects have souls or spirits:contentReference[oaicite:14]{index=14}.
  23. Anthropocentrism: Human‑centred worldview placing humans at the moral center.
  24. Apologetics: Rational defence of religious doctrines.
  25. Applied ethics: Practical approach to moral problems in fields like medicine or business.
  26. Appiah, Kwame Anthony: Contemporary ethicist of cosmopolitanism and identity.
  27. A posteriori: Knowledge dependent on experience.
  28. A priori: Knowledge independent of experience.
  29. Arendt, Hannah: Political philosopher of totalitarianism and the human condition.
  30. Atehism: Disbelief in gods.
  31. Atomism: Ancient view that everything is composed of indivisible atoms.
  32. Augustine of Hippo: Influential early Christian philosopher and theologian.
  33. Authenticity: Existentialist ideal of living in accordance with one’s true self.
  34. Autonomy: Capacity for self‑governance and independent decision‑making.
  35. Averroes: Islamic philosopher who commented on Aristotle.
  36. Avicenna: Persian polymath known for works on metaphysics and medicine.
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B

  1. Bachelard, Gaston: French philosopher of science and imagination.
  2. Bacon, Francis: Early modern philosopher advocating empirical science.
  3. Badiou, Alain: Contemporary French thinker on being and event.
  4. Behavioralism: Quantitative approach to political behaviour:contentReference[oaicite:15]{index=15}.
  5. Behaviorism: Psychological doctrine explaining behaviour without mental states:contentReference[oaicite:16]{index=16}.
  6. Bentham, Jeremy: Utilitarian who equated moral value with pleasure and pain.
  7. Benjamin, Walter: Cultural critic known for essays on art and history.
  8. Bergson, Henri: Philosopher of duration and creative evolution.
  9. Berkeley, George: Idealist philosopher asserting that existence depends on perception.
  10. Biologism: Interpretation of human life solely in biological terms:contentReference[oaicite:17]{index=17}.
  11. Bioethics: Study of ethical issues in medicine and life sciences.
  12. Boethius: Roman senator who wrote “The Consolation of Philosophy”.
  13. Bolzano, Bernard: Logician who developed early ideas of set theory.
  14. Boredom: Phenomenological experience studied by Kierkegaard and Heidegger.
  15. Brain in a vat: Skeptical scenario questioning external reality.
  16. Brentano, Franz: Philosopher who reintroduced the concept of intentionality.
  17. Buber, Martin: Philosopher of dialogue emphasising I–Thou relations.
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C

  1. Camus, Albert: Novelist and philosopher of the absurd.
  2. Categorical imperative: Kant’s universal moral principle.
  3. Causality: Relation of cause and effect.
  4. Cavendish, Margaret: Early modern natural philosopher and writer.
  5. Certainty: Epistemic state of indubitability.
  6. Chomsky, Noam: Linguist and philosopher known for generative grammar.
  7. Chrysippus: Stoic logician who systematised propositional logic.
  8. Cicero: Roman orator who popularised Stoicism and natural law.
  9. Comte, Auguste: Founder of positivism and sociology.
  10. Condorcet: Enlightenment thinker advocating progress and women’s rights.
  11. Compatibilism: View that free will is compatible with determinism.
  12. Confucianism: Chinese ethical and political philosophy.
  13. Consciousness: Subjective awareness of mental states.
  14. Consequentialism: Ethics judging actions by their outcomes.
  15. Constructivism: Epistemic view that knowledge is constructed.
  16. Continental philosophy: Tradition emphasising history, culture and critique.
  17. Contractualism: Moral theory based on hypothetical agreements.
  18. Cosmopolitanism: Idea that individuals belong to a global community.
  19. Cynicism: Ancient school advocating virtue and asceticism.
  20. Cyrenaics: Hedonist school founded by Aristippus.
  21. Culture: Complex of customs and beliefs shaping societies.
  22. Cognitive bias: Systematic deviation from rational judgement.
  23. Cartesianism: Philosophy based on Descartes’ emphasis on mind and doubt.
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D

  1. Daoism: Chinese philosophy emphasizing harmony with the Tao.
  2. Darwinism: Biological evolution through natural selection:contentReference[oaicite:18]{index=18}.
  3. De Beauvoir, Simone: Existentialist feminist and author of “The Second Sex”.
  4. Deconstruction: Critical method analysing hidden assumptions:contentReference[oaicite:19]{index=19}.
  5. Deductive reasoning: Deriving conclusions logically from premises.
  6. Defeatism: Acceptance of inevitable defeat:contentReference[oaicite:20]{index=20}.
  7. Deism: Belief in a non‑interventionist creator known by reason:contentReference[oaicite:21]{index=21}.
  8. Democracy: Political system based on rule by the people.
  9. Democritus: Atomist pre‑Socratic thinker.
  10. Deontologism: Duty‑based ethical theory:contentReference[oaicite:22]{index=22}.
  11. Descartes, René: Philosopher of methodic doubt and mind–body dualism.
  12. Descriptivism: Theory that names refer via associated descriptions:contentReference[oaicite:23]{index=23}.
  13. Determinism: View that all events follow necessary causal laws:contentReference[oaicite:24]{index=24}.
  14. Diderot, Denis: Encyclopédiste and advocate of materialism.
  15. Diogenes: Cynic who lived in a barrel and rejected convention.
  16. Dialectic: Method of argument through thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
  17. Dialectical materialism: Marxist idea that material conditions shape ideas:contentReference[oaicite:25]{index=25}.
  18. Dialetheism: View that true contradictions exist:contentReference[oaicite:26]{index=26}.
  19. Distributism: Economic theory advocating widespread property ownership:contentReference[oaicite:27]{index=27}.
  20. Dogma: Authoritative belief held beyond dispute:contentReference[oaicite:28]{index=28}.
  21. Dualism: Belief that mind and body are fundamentally distinct:contentReference[oaicite:29]{index=29}.
  22. Duns Scotus, John: Medieval philosopher of univocity and haecceity.
  23. Dynamism: Leibniz’s view that material reality consists of active forces:contentReference[oaicite:30]{index=30}.
  24. Dasein: Heidegger’s term for human existence.
  25. Derrida, Jacques: Philosopher associated with deconstruction.
  26. Difference principle: Rawlsian rule favouring the least advantaged.
  27. Dworkin, Ronald: Legal philosopher advocating moral reading of law.
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E

  1. Eclecticism: Approach drawing on multiple theories:contentReference[oaicite:31]{index=31}.
  2. Egalitarianism: Doctrine that all persons deserve equal rights:contentReference[oaicite:32]{index=32}.
  3. Egoism: View that actions are motivated by self‑interest:contentReference[oaicite:33]{index=33}.
  4. Eliminative materialism: Theory rejecting folk psychology as illusory:contentReference[oaicite:34]{index=34}.
  5. Emotionalism: Emphasis on emotion as guiding principle.
  6. Emotivism: Meta‑ethical theory that moral statements express attitudes:contentReference[oaicite:35]{index=35}.
  7. Empiricism: Doctrine that knowledge comes from experience:contentReference[oaicite:36]{index=36}.
  8. Enlightenment: 18th‑century movement stressing reason and progress.
  9. Environmentalism: Ethical concern for the natural environment:contentReference[oaicite:37]{index=37}.
  10. Erasmus: Humanist who stressed free will and education.
  11. Epictetus: Stoic teacher emphasising inner freedom.
  12. Epicureanism: Philosophy seeking tranquility through avoidance of pain:contentReference[oaicite:38]{index=38}.
  13. Epicurus: Hellenistic philosopher of simple pleasures.
  14. Epistemology: Study of knowledge and justified belief:contentReference[oaicite:39]{index=39}.
  15. Epiphenomenalism: View that mental events have no causal efficacy:contentReference[oaicite:40]{index=40}.
  16. Essentialism: Belief that entities have defining attributes:contentReference[oaicite:41]{index=41}.
  17. Eternalism: View that past, present and future equally exist:contentReference[oaicite:42]{index=42}.
  18. Ethical egoism: Normative view that one ought to pursue self‑interest:contentReference[oaicite:43]{index=43}.
  19. Ethics: Branch of philosophy dealing with moral values.
  20. Ethnocentrism: Tendency to see one’s culture as central:contentReference[oaicite:44]{index=44}.
  21. Eudaimonia: Aristotelian notion of flourishing as the highest good.
  22. Evidentialism: Epistemic theory linking belief justification to evidence.
  23. Existentialism: Movement emphasising individual freedom and meaning.
  24. Externalism: View that justification may depend on factors outside the agent.
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F

  1. Fallibilism: Doctrine that knowledge is always provisional:contentReference[oaicite:45]{index=45}.
  2. Falsifiability: Criterion that scientific theories must admit possible refutation:contentReference[oaicite:46]{index=46}.
  3. Fascism: Authoritarian nationalist ideology:contentReference[oaicite:47]{index=47}.
  4. Fatalism: View that human actions cannot alter predetermined outcomes:contentReference[oaicite:48]{index=48}.
  5. Feminism: Movement seeking gender equality and women’s rights:contentReference[oaicite:49]{index=49}.
  6. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb: German idealist emphasising self‑consciousness.
  7. Fideism: Religious view holding faith above reason:contentReference[oaicite:50]{index=50}.
  8. Feuerbach, Ludwig: Critic of religion who saw God as projection of human ideals.
  9. Feyerabend, Paul: Philosopher of science who promoted epistemological anarchism.
  10. Finalism: Theory that events are defined by an end goal:contentReference[oaicite:51]{index=51}.
  11. Formalism: Approach emphasising form and rules, especially in math and law:contentReference[oaicite:52]{index=52}.
  12. Foundationalism: Epistemic view that knowledge rests on basic beliefs:contentReference[oaicite:53]{index=53}.
  13. French materialism: Enlightenment view combining empiricism and associationism:contentReference[oaicite:54]{index=54}.
  14. Freudianism: Psychoanalytic view stressing repression and the unconscious:contentReference[oaicite:55]{index=55}.
  15. Frege, Gottlob: Logician who distinguished sense and reference.
  16. Free will: Ability to choose freely despite causal chains.
  17. Functionalism: Theory that mental states are defined by their causal roles:contentReference[oaicite:56]{index=56}.
  18. Foucault, Michel: Historian who analysed power, discourse and subjectivity.
  19. Frankfurt School: Group developing critical theory of society.
  20. Friendship: Ethical concept emphasised by Aristotle.
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G

  1. Gadamer, Hans‑Georg: Hermeneutic philosopher stressing dialogue.
  2. Game theory: Mathematical study of strategic interaction.
  3. Gassendi, Pierre: Epicurean revivalist and critic of scholasticism.
  4. Genealogy: Foucaultian method tracing origins of values.
  5. General will: Rousseau’s notion of collective decision.
  6. Genetic fallacy: Error of assessing a belief by its origin.
  7. Gestalt: View that wholes are more than the sum of parts.
  8. Gorgias: Sophist known for radical skepticism and rhetoric.
  9. Golden mean: Aristotelian idea of virtue as a mean between extremes.
  10. Good and evil: Moral duality in ethics and religion.
  11. Grace: Theological notion of unmerited divine favor.
  12. Greek philosophy: Ancient tradition including pre‑Socratics, Plato and Aristotle.
  13. Grounding: Metaphysical relation of dependence.
  14. Guattari, Félix: Co‑author of “A Thousand Plateaus”.
  15. Gurdjieff: Mystic teaching self‑development and awakening.
  16. Gnosticism: Ancient belief in hidden spiritual knowledge.
  17. Gene drive: Example of applied ethics.
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H

  1. Habermas, Jürgen: Philosopher of communicative rationality.
  2. Hedonism: Ethical view that pleasure is the highest good:contentReference[oaicite:57]{index=57}.
  3. Hegelianism: Philosophy of Hegel emphasising rational reality:contentReference[oaicite:58]{index=58}.
  4. Henotheism: Devotion to one god while acknowledging others:contentReference[oaicite:59]{index=59}.
  5. Heraclitus: Pre‑Socratic who taught that all is flux.
  6. Hobbes, Thomas: Author of “Leviathan” who advocated social contract and absolute sovereignty.
  7. Hereditarianism: View that mental traits are inherited:contentReference[oaicite:60]{index=60}.
  8. Hermeneutics: Study of interpretation, especially texts.
  9. Hinduism: Ancient religion with diverse philosophies:contentReference[oaicite:61]{index=61}.
  10. Historical determinism: Claim that history is determined by prior events:contentReference[oaicite:62]{index=62}.
  11. Historical materialism: Marxist method explaining societal change via economic forces:contentReference[oaicite:63]{index=63}.
  12. Historicism: Theory emphasising context and development in understanding:contentReference[oaicite:64]{index=64}.
  13. Holism: View that systems cannot be understood merely by examining parts:contentReference[oaicite:65]{index=65}.
  14. Humanism: Ethical stance prioritising human values:contentReference[oaicite:66]{index=66}.
  15. Hylozoism: Idea that all matter has life:contentReference[oaicite:67]{index=67}.
  16. Husserl, Edmund: Founder of phenomenology.
  17. Hume, David: Empiricist critic of causation and induction.
  18. Hypatia: Alexandrian philosopher martyred for her learning.
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I

  1. Idealism: View that reality is fundamentally mental:contentReference[oaicite:68]{index=68}.
  2. Ignosticism: Position that questions the concept of God:contentReference[oaicite:69]{index=69}.
  3. Illusionism: Belief that the material world is a collection of mind‑induced appearances:contentReference[oaicite:70]{index=70}.
  4. Immaterialism: Doctrine denying the existence of material objects:contentReference[oaicite:71]{index=71}.
  5. Immoralism: Attitude challenging conventional moral codes:contentReference[oaicite:72]{index=72}.
  6. Immortalism: Concept of unending human life:contentReference[oaicite:73]{index=73}.
  7. Incompatibilism: Belief that free will and determinism cannot both be true:contentReference[oaicite:74]{index=74}.
  8. Indeterminism: View that not all events are predetermined:contentReference[oaicite:75]{index=75}.
  9. Individualism: Emphasis on individual rights over collective claims:contentReference[oaicite:76]{index=76}.
  10. Induction: Inference from particular cases to general laws.
  11. Ibn Arabi: Sufi mystic known for the unity of being.
  12. Innatism: Theory that the mind is born with ideas:contentReference[oaicite:77]{index=77}.
  13. Instrumentalism: View that theories are tools rather than literal truths:contentReference[oaicite:78]{index=78}.
  14. Intellectualism: Emphasis on reason and learning:contentReference[oaicite:79]{index=79}.
  15. Intentionality: Aboutness of mental states.
  16. Internalism: View that justification depends only on factors accessible to the thinker:contentReference[oaicite:80]{index=80}.
  17. Intentionalism: Theory exploring whether humans author their actions:contentReference[oaicite:81]{index=81}.
  18. Interactionism: Position that mind and body causally interact:contentReference[oaicite:82]{index=82}.
  19. Interpretivism: View that knowledge is based on interpretation:contentReference[oaicite:83]{index=83}.
  20. Intrinsicism: Belief that value is inherent, not assigned:contentReference[oaicite:84]{index=84}.
  21. Intuitionism: Philosophy of mathematics focusing on mental construction:contentReference[oaicite:85]{index=85}.
  22. Irrationalism: Philosophy privileging intuition over rationality:contentReference[oaicite:86]{index=86}.
  23. Irrealism: Combination of phenomenalism and physicalism:contentReference[oaicite:87]{index=87}.
  24. Islamism: Political ideology seeking to apply Islamic law to state affairs:contentReference[oaicite:88]{index=88}.
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J

  1. Jacobi, Friedrich: German philosopher critic of rationalism.
  2. Jainism: Indian philosophy advocating non‑violence and many‑sided truth.
  3. James, William: Pragmatist psychologist and philosopher.
  4. Jaspers, Karl: Existentialist emphasising transcendence.
  5. Jane Addams: Social reformer and pragmatist philosopher of democracy.
  6. Judgement: Act of forming a belief or conclusion.
  7. Justice: Principle of fairness in social arrangements.
  8. Just war theory: Doctrine regulating the morality of warfare.
  9. Justification: Process of providing reasons for beliefs.
  10. Jus cogens: Peremptory norms in international law.
  11. Juxtaposition: Placement of ideas for comparison.
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K

  1. Kabbalah: Jewish mystical tradition.
  2. Kalam: Islamic rational theology.
  3. Kant, Immanuel: Philosopher of critical idealism.
  4. Karma: Buddhist and Hindu law of moral causation.
  5. Kierkegaard, Søren: Founder of Christian existentialism.
  6. Knowledge: Justified true belief or other theories.
  7. Koan: Paradoxical story used in Zen training.
  8. Kripke, Saul: Logician known for modal semantics.
  9. Kropotkin, Peter: Anarchist theorist of mutual aid.
  10. Kuhn, Thomas: Historian of science who coined “paradigm shift”.
  11. Kymlicka, Will: Political philosopher on multiculturalism.
  12. Kyoto School: Japanese philosophical movement blending Zen and Western thought.
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L

  1. Laozi: Legendary author of the “Tao Te Ching”.
  2. Language: System of symbols and rules used for communication.
  3. Laws of thought: Classical logical principles of identity, non‑contradiction and excluded middle.
  4. Leibniz, Gottfried: Philosopher of monads and pre‑established harmony.
  5. Levinas, Emmanuel: Phenomenologist who stressed ethics of the other.
  6. Leninism: Revolutionary theory derived from Marxism.
  7. Liberation philosophy: Latin American movement emphasising social justice.
  8. Libertarianism: Political philosophy prioritising individual liberty.
  9. Linguistic turn: 20th‑century emphasis on language in philosophy.
  10. Locke, John: Empiricist who theorised natural rights and tabula rasa.
  11. Logic: Study of valid reasoning.
  12. Logical positivism: Movement asserting that meaningful statements are empirically verifiable.
  13. Logos: Greek term meaning word, reason or principle.
  14. Lucretius: Epicurean poet explaining atomism.
  15. Lyotard, Jean‑François: Postmodern theorist of metanarratives.
  16. Liberalism: Political doctrine stressing individual rights.
  17. Laissez‑faire: Economic system of minimal government intervention.
  18. Logical atomism: Russell and Wittgenstein’s view of reality as independent facts.
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M

  1. Machiavelli, Niccolò: Author of “The Prince”, known for realism in politics.
  2. Mahāyāna: Branch of Buddhism emphasising universal salvation.
  3. Maimonides: Jewish philosopher who reconciled faith and reason.
  4. Maoism: Chinese communist ideology derived from Marxism–Leninism.
  5. Marcus Aurelius: Stoic emperor whose “Meditations” reflect on virtue.
  6. Materialism: Doctrine that matter is the fundamental substance.
  7. Mathematical logic: Study of logic using formal mathematical tools.
  8. McTaggart, J.M.E.: Philosopher who argued time is unreal.
  9. Meaning of life: Philosophical question about life’s purpose.
  10. Meditation: Practice of focused attention and mindfulness.
  11. Merleau‑Ponty, Maurice: Phenomenologist of embodiment and perception.
  12. Meta‑ethics: Analysis of the nature of moral judgments.
  13. Metaphysics: Study of being, existence and reality beyond physics.
  14. Mill, John Stuart: Utilitarian advocate of liberty and women’s rights.
  15. Mind–body problem: Question of how mental and physical states relate.
  16. Miracle: Event inexplicable by natural causes.
  17. Modal logic: Logic dealing with necessity and possibility.
  18. Monism: View that reality is fundamentally one.
  19. Monotheism: Belief in a single deity.
  20. Montesquieu: French thinker who articulated separation of powers.
  21. Moral realism: View that moral statements can be true or false.
  22. Moral relativism: View that moral norms are culturally dependent.
  23. Moral skepticism: Doubt about the possibility of moral knowledge.
  24. Moses: Religious leader central to Jewish and Christian tradition.
  25. Mysticism: Pursuit of direct union with the divine.
  26. Multiculturalism: Recognition and respect for diverse cultures.
  27. Mutualism: Proudhon’s economic theory advocating reciprocity.
  28. Myth of Sisyphus: Camus’s essay on absurdity and revolt.
  29. Mencius: Confucian philosopher emphasising innate human goodness.
  30. Mohism: Chinese philosophy advocating universal love and meritocracy.
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N

  1. Nagarjuna: Mahayana philosopher of emptiness.
  2. Nativism: View that certain skills are innate rather than learned.
  3. Natural law: Theory that moral principles derive from human nature.
  4. Naturalism: Doctrine that everything arises from natural causes.
  5. Necessary and sufficient conditions: Concepts used to analyse definitions.
  6. Neo‑Kantianism: Revival of Kant’s philosophy in the 19th century.
  7. Neoplatonism: Late ancient synthesis of Plato with mysticism.
  8. Nicolaus of Cusa: Renaissance cardinal who explored learned ignorance.
  9. Nietzsche, Friedrich: Philosopher who declared “God is dead” and critiqued morality.
  10. Nihilism: Belief that life lacks inherent meaning or value.
  11. Nominalism: Denial of the existence of universals outside the mind.
  12. Normative ethics: Study of ethical standards and principles.
  13. Noumenon: In Kant, the thing‑in‑itself beyond perception.
  14. Nous: Greek term for mind or intellect.
  15. Nussbaum, Martha: Philosopher of capabilities and emotions.
  16. Narrative identity: Conception of self created through life stories.
  17. Neopragmatism: Contemporary form of pragmatism influenced by Dewey and Quine.
  18. Non‑violence: Ethical stance rejecting physical force.
  19. New Age: Spiritual movement blending esotericism and self‑help.
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O

  1. Objectivism: Ayn Rand’s philosophy of rational self‑interest.
  2. Objectivity: Impartiality free from bias or subjective influence.
  3. Occam’s razor: Principle favouring the simplest explanation.
  4. Ockham, William of: Scholastic philosopher known for nominalism.
  5. Omnibenevolence: Attribute of being all‑good.
  6. Omnipotence: Attribute of unlimited power.
  7. Omniscience: Attribute of unlimited knowledge.
  8. Ontology: Study of being and existence.
  9. Open society: Popper’s vision of a free, democratic society.
  10. Open theism: View that God does not know the future exhaustively.
  11. Ortega y Gasset, José: Spanish essayist known for “The Revolt of the Masses”.
  12. Origen: Early Christian theologian who integrated Greek philosophy and scripture.
  13. Original position: Rawls’ hypothetical situation for choosing principles of justice.
  14. Orphism: Mystical Greek cult emphasising purification.
  15. Orthodoxy: Conformity to established religious beliefs.
  16. Outcome utilitarianism: Synonym for act utilitarianism.
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P

  1. Panentheism: Belief that the divine pervades but exceeds the universe.
  2. Panpsychism: View that all matter has a mental aspect.
  3. Paradigm: Framework of thought guiding research.
  4. Paradox: Statement leading to a contradiction or logical tension.
  5. Parfit, Derek: Moral philosopher known for identity and ethics.
  6. Paternalism: Limiting autonomy purportedly for someone’s own good.
  7. Pascal’s wager: Argument that belief in God is a rational bet.
  8. Peirce, Charles S.: Founder of pragmatism and semiotics.
  9. Perception: Process of interpreting sensory information.
  10. Peripatetic school: Philosophical school founded by Aristotle.
  11. Phenomenology: Study of structures of consciousness.
  12. Philosophy of language: Investigation of meaning and reference.
  13. Philosophy of mind: Inquiry into the nature of mental phenomena.
  14. Philosophy of science: Study of scientific methods and aims.
  15. Philosophical zombie: Hypothetical being lacking consciousness.
  16. Physicalism: View that everything is physical or depends on the physical.
  17. Plato: Author of dialogues introducing the theory of forms.
  18. Platonism: Endorsement of abstract objects like numbers.
  19. Pleasure: Positive sensation valued in hedonistic ethics.
  20. Plotinus: Neoplatonist who taught emanation from the One.
  21. Political philosophy: Study of the state, liberty and justice.
  22. Popper, Karl: Philosopher of science advocating falsifiability.
  23. Pragmatism: Philosophy emphasising practical consequences.
  24. Predicate logic: Formal system using quantifiers and variables.
  25. Presentism: View that only the present exists.
  26. Process philosophy: Metaphysics treating change and process as fundamental.
  27. Proclus: Neoplatonist who systematised Platonic theology.
  28. Protagoras: Sophist known for the claim that man is the measure.
  29. Proudhon, Pierre: Anarchist who declared “property is theft”.
  30. Psychologism: Error of reducing logic or mathematics to psychology.
  31. Pyrrhonism: Ancient skeptical school.
  32. Pythagoras: Philosopher and mathematician associated with harmony of numbers.
  33. Pythagoreanism: Mystical interpretation of numbers and ratios.
  34. Panarchy: Governance system of overlapping voluntary jurisdictions.
  35. Panlogism: Hegelian idea that reality is logical.
  36. Pantheism: Doctrine identifying God with the universe.
  37. Personal identity: Problem of what makes a person the same over time.
  38. Public reason: Rawlsian concept of shared rational justification.
  39. Punishment: Sanctions imposed for wrongdoing.
  40. Postmodernism: Critical attitude toward grand narratives and fixed meanings.
  41. Post‑structuralism: Movement questioning structuralist assumptions.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Q

  1. Qualia: Subjective qualities of conscious experience.
  2. Quantifier: Logical operator expressing “for all” or “there exists”.
  3. Quantum logic: Non‑classical logic inspired by quantum mechanics.
  4. Quasi‑realism: Meta‑ethical view treating moral statements as if factual.
  5. Quiddity: Essence or “whatness” of a thing.
  6. Quine, W.V.O.: Philosopher of language and naturalized epistemology.
  7. Quietism: Belief that philosophical problems dissolve through silence.
  8. Question‑begging: Fallacy where the conclusion is assumed in the premise.
  9. Quantum ethics: Exploration of ethical implications of quantum theory.
  10. Quintessence: Hypothetical fifth element or essential principle.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

R

  1. Radical empiricism: William James’s view that relations are experienced directly.
  2. Rational choice theory: Model of decision‑making based on rational agents.
  3. Rationalism: Doctrine that reason is the primary source of knowledge.
  4. Rawls, John: Political philosopher of justice as fairness.
  5. Realism: Belief in an external reality independent of perception.
  6. Reciprocity: Principle that mutual benefit guides social cooperation.
  7. Reductionism: Analysis of complex phenomena to simpler components.
  8. Reification: Treating abstract concepts as concrete.
  9. Relativism: View that truth or values depend on perspective.
  10. Religious pluralism: Acceptance of multiple religious paths.
  11. Renaissance humanism: Revival of classical learning and human dignity.
  12. Responsibility: Moral accountability for actions.
  13. Rights: Entitlements or freedoms recognised by moral or legal systems.
  14. Roger Bacon: Medieval scientist and advocate of experimental method.
  15. Rorty, Richard: Pragmatist critic of representationalism.
  16. Rousseau, Jean‑Jacques: Philosopher of the social contract and natural goodness.
  17. Rumi: Persian poet whose mysticism inspired Sufism.
  18. Rule utilitarianism: Form of utilitarianism applying rules that maximise utility.
  19. Russell, Bertrand: Analytic philosopher and logician.
  20. Ryle, Gilbert: Philosopher who critiqued Cartesian dualism.
  21. Romanticism: Movement valuing emotion and individual imagination.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

S

  1. Sartre, Jean‑Paul: Existentialist who stressed freedom and responsibility.
  2. Satya: Concept of truth in Indian philosophy.
  3. Schelling, F.W.J.: German idealist focusing on nature and freedom.
  4. Schopenhauer, Arthur: Philosopher of pessimism and the will.
  5. Schrödinger’s cat: Thought experiment illustrating quantum superposition.
  6. Secularism: Separation of religious institutions from state.
  7. Scientism: Belief that empirical science is the only path to knowledge.
  8. Sein und Zeit: Heidegger’s work on being and time.
  9. Sensation: Raw sensory input before interpretation.
  10. Sentience: Capacity for conscious experience.
  11. Sentimentalism: View that moral judgments arise from feelings.
  12. Skepticism: Doubt regarding knowledge claims.
  13. Social contract: Idea that political authority arises from agreement.
  14. Social constructivism: View that social phenomena are created by humans.
  15. Socialism: Economic system where means of production are collectively owned.
  16. Sociobiology: Study of biological basis of social behaviour.
  17. Soft determinism: Compatibilist stance that free will exists within determinism.
  18. Solipsism: View that only one’s own mind is certain to exist.
  19. Sophists: Ancient teachers who charged for instruction.
  20. Spinoza, Baruch: Rationalist who identified God with nature.
  21. Stoicism: Hellenistic philosophy focusing on virtue and control of passions.
  22. Structuralism: Method of analysis focusing on underlying structures.
  23. Subjectivism: View that value or truth is dependent on subjects.
  24. Substance: Underlying entity in metaphysics.
  25. Supervenience: Relation where higher‑level properties depend on lower‑level ones.
  26. Surrealism: Artistic movement exploring unconscious processes.
  27. Synechism: Peirce’s doctrine of continuity.
  28. Syncretism: Blending of different religious or philosophical beliefs.
  29. System: Organised set of interrelated elements.
  30. Symbolic logic: Formal logic using symbols to represent propositions.
  31. Syllogism: Deductive argument with two premises and a conclusion.
  32. Synesthesia: Experiencing one sense through another; used metaphorically in aesthetics.
  33. Singer, Peter: Contemporary utilitarian ethicist.
  34. Seneca: Stoic philosopher and Roman statesman.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

T

  1. Taoism: Chinese philosophy emphasising harmony and non‑action.
  2. Tautology: Statement true by logical form.
  3. Teilhard de Chardin: Jesuit who synthesised evolution and theology.
  4. Teleology: Explanation in terms of purpose.
  5. Teleological argument: Argument for God from design.
  6. Temporal logic: Logical system dealing with time.
  7. Thales: Pre‑Socratic philosopher who sought natural explanations.
  8. Theism: Belief in a personal deity.
  9. Theodicy: Defence of God’s goodness despite evil.
  10. Theology: Study of the divine.
  11. Theory of forms: Plato’s doctrine of abstract, eternal universals.
  12. Thomism: Philosophical system based on Aquinas.
  13. Thoreau, Henry David: Transcendentalist who wrote about civil disobedience.
  14. Transcendence: Existence beyond ordinary experience.
  15. Transcendental idealism: Kant’s view that we know appearances, not things‑in‑themselves.
  16. Truth: Property of statements corresponding to reality.
  17. Turing test: Test of a machine’s ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour.
  18. Tyranny: Oppressive government lacking legitimacy.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

U

  1. Ubermensch: Nietzsche’s ideal of self‑overcoming.
  2. Unconscious: Part of the mind outside awareness.
  3. Under-determination: Thesis that evidence may support multiple theories.
  4. Understanding: Faculty of grasping meaning or reasons.
  5. Underdetermination: See above; repetition.
  6. Universals: Properties or relations shared by multiple things.
  7. Universalism: Belief in universal moral principles.
  8. Unitarianism: Christian theology rejecting the Trinity.
  9. Unity of science: Idea that sciences share a common base and methodology.
  10. Utilitarianism: Ethical theory evaluating actions by their consequences for happiness.
  11. Utopianism: Visionary ideal of a perfect society.
  12. Upanishads: Ancient Indian texts exploring ultimate reality.
  13. Uselessness: Daoist notion of the virtue of being useless.
  14. Ultramontanism: Doctrine emphasising papal authority.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

V

  1. Validity: Property of arguments whose conclusions follow necessarily.
  2. Value theory: Study of what is good or valuable.
  3. Varieties of Religious Experience: William James’s work on mysticism.
  4. Vedanta: Indian school centred on the Upanishads.
  5. Vedas: Ancient Hindu scriptures forming theological foundations.
  6. Verification principle: Positivist test of meaning through empirical verifiability.
  7. Verificationism: Doctrine that only verifiable statements are meaningful.
  8. Vasubandhu: Buddhist philosopher known for Yogācāra idealism.
  9. Vico, Giambattista: Early modern thinker of historical cycles and imagination.
  10. Virtue: Admirable characteristic or excellence.
  11. Virtue ethics: Normative theory focusing on character.
  12. Virtù: Machiavellian quality of pragmatic leadership.
  13. Volition: Faculty or act of making a choice.
  14. Voltaire: Enlightenment critic of intolerance and dogma.
  15. Voluntarism: View that will precedes intellect in human action.
  16. Vitalism: Doctrine that life is more than physical or chemical processes.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

W

  1. War and Peace: Tolstoy’s novel exploring free will and history.
  2. Weber, Max: Sociologist who analysed rationalisation and authority.
  3. Weil, Simone: Mystical philosopher emphasising attention and grace.
  4. Whitehead, Alfred North: Process philosopher and mathematician.
  5. Will: Faculty of choosing or striving.
  6. Will to power: Nietzsche’s concept of fundamental human drive.
  7. Wisdom: Judicious application of knowledge.
  8. Wittgenstein, Ludwig: Philosopher of language and meaning.
  9. Women philosophers: Contribution of women to philosophical discourse.
  10. Worldview: Comprehensive perspective on life and the universe.
  11. World‑soul: Idea of a collective or cosmic spirit.
  12. Wollstonecraft, Mary: Early advocate of women’s rights and author of “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”.
  13. Wu wei: Daoist notion of effortless action.
  14. Wicca: Modern pagan witchcraft sometimes viewed philosophically.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

X

  1. Xenocrates: Head of Plato’s Academy who systematised metaphysics.
  2. Xenophanes: Poet–philosopher who criticised anthropomorphic gods.
  3. Xenophon: Historian whose works include Socratic dialogues.
  4. Xunzi: Confucian thinker who believed human nature is bad.
  5. Xenophobia: Fear or hatred of foreigners; topic in social philosophy.
  6. Xenophilia: Love or admiration of foreign cultures.
  7. X‑phi: Experimental philosophy using empirical methods.
  8. Xavier Zubiri: Spanish philosopher of reality and transcendence.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Y

  1. Yang Xiong: Han‑dynasty philosopher emphasising moral cultivation.
  2. Yang Zhu: Chinese philosopher promoting self‑preservation.
  3. Yin and yang: Daoist symbol of complementary forces.
  4. Yi Jing: “Book of Changes”, ancient divination text.
  5. Young Hegelians: Group criticising Hegel from the left.
  6. Yoga: Indian discipline aiming for union and liberation.
  7. Yūgen: Japanese aesthetic of subtle profundity.
  8. Yu‑Lan Fung: Chinese scholar who wrote on history of Chinese philosophy.
  9. Yamas: Five moral vows in yoga ethics.
  10. Yi (righteousness): Confucian virtue of moral obligation.
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Z

  1. Zeitgeist: Spirit of the age or cultural climate.
  2. Zen: Mahayana school focusing on meditation and direct insight.
  3. Zeno of Citium: Founder of Stoicism.
  4. Zeno of Elea: Philosopher known for paradoxes of motion.
  5. Zeno’s paradoxes: Arguments challenging notions of space and time.
  6. Zhang Zai: Neo‑Confucian who emphasised the qi‑filled universe.
  7. Zhu Xi: Neo‑Confucian synthesizer of classical teachings.
  8. Zhuangzi: Daoist philosopher emphasising spontaneity.
  9. Zoroastrianism: Ancient Persian religion stressing cosmic dualism.
  10. Žižek, Slavoj: Contemporary theorist blending psychoanalysis and Marxism.
  11. Zarathustra: Prophet of Zoroastrianism; Nietzsche’s fictional teacher.
  12. Zombi: Hypothetical being with behaviour but no consciousness.


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Epochen und Strömungen





Philosophen







Philosophie Quiz Mix

PHILOSOPHIE QUIZ MIX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23




Zitate


Kompetenzen

Grundlagen

Philosophie

Philosophie

  • G

    • Ich kann grundlegende philosophische Begriffe und ihre Bedeutung im Alltag erkennen.

  • M

    • Ich kann philosophische Fragestellungen verstehen und eigene Gedanken dazu formulieren.

  • E

    • Ich kann philosophische Theorien analysieren und kritisch reflektieren.




    Philosophiegeschichte

    Philosophiegeschichte

  • G

    • Ich kann wichtige Epochen der Philosophiegeschichte und ihre Merkmale kennenlernen.

  • M

    • Ich kann bedeutende Philosophen und ihre Lehren verstehen und in den historischen Kontext einordnen.

  • E

    • Ich kann den historischen Wandel philosophischer Ideen analysieren und kritisch bewerten.




    Philosophen

    Philosophen

  • G

    • Ich kann bekannte Philosophen und ihre Zeitperioden identifizieren.

  • M

    • Ich kann das Leben und Werk ausgewählter Philosophen verstehen und in den historischen Kontext einordnen.

  • E

    • Ich kann den Einfluss von Philosophen auf die Entwicklung der Philosophie analysieren und ihre Bedeutung kritisch bewerten.




    Teilen





    Schulfach+

    Prüfungsliteratur 2026
    Bundesland Bücher Kurzbeschreibung
    Baden-Württemberg

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck

    Mittlere Reife

    1. Der Markisenmann - Jan Weiler oder Als die Welt uns gehörte - Liz Kessler
    2. Ein Schatten wie ein Leopard - Myron Levoy oder Pampa Blues - Rolf Lappert

    Abitur Dorfrichter-Komödie über Wahrheit/Schuld; Roman über einen Ort und deutsche Geschichte. Mittlere Reife Wahllektüren (Roadtrip-Vater-Sohn / Jugendroman im NS-Kontext / Coming-of-age / Provinzroman).

    Bayern

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck

    Abitur Lustspiel über Machtmissbrauch und Recht; Roman als Zeitschnitt deutscher Geschichte an einem Haus/Grundstück.

    Berlin/Brandenburg

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Woyzeck - Georg Büchner
    3. Der Biberpelz - Gerhart Hauptmann
    4. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck

    Abitur Gerichtskomödie; soziales Drama um Ausbeutung/Armut; Komödie/Satire um Diebstahl und Obrigkeit; Roman über Erinnerungsräume und Umbrüche.

    Bremen

    Abitur

    1. Nach Mitternacht - Irmgard Keun
    2. Mario und der Zauberer - Thomas Mann
    3. Emilia Galotti - Gotthold Ephraim Lessing oder Miss Sara Sampson - Gotthold Ephraim Lessing

    Abitur Roman in der NS-Zeit (Alltag, Anpassung, Angst); Novelle über Verführung/Massenpsychologie; bürgerliche Trauerspiele (Moral, Macht, Stand).

    Hamburg

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Das kunstseidene Mädchen - Irmgard Keun

    Abitur Justiz-/Machtkritik als Komödie; Großstadtroman der Weimarer Zeit (Rollenbilder, Aufstiegsträume, soziale Realität).

    Hessen

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Woyzeck - Georg Büchner
    3. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck
    4. Der Prozess - Franz Kafka

    Abitur Gerichtskomödie; Fragmentdrama über Gewalt/Entmenschlichung; Erinnerungsroman über deutsche Brüche; moderner Roman über Schuld, Macht und Bürokratie.

    Niedersachsen

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochene Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Das kunstseidene Mädchen - Irmgard Keun
    3. Die Marquise von O. - Heinrich von Kleist
    4. Über das Marionettentheater - Heinrich von Kleist

    Abitur Schwerpunkt auf Drama/Roman sowie Kleist-Prosatext und Essay (Ehre, Gewalt, Unschuld; Ästhetik/„Anmut“).

    Nordrhein-Westfalen

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck

    Abitur Komödie über Wahrheit und Autorität; Roman als literarische „Geschichtsschichtung“ an einem Ort.

    Saarland

    Abitur

    1. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck
    2. Furor - Lutz Hübner und Sarah Nemitz
    3. Bahnwärter Thiel - Gerhart Hauptmann

    Abitur Erinnerungsroman an einem Ort; zeitgenössisches Drama über Eskalation/Populismus; naturalistische Novelle (Pflicht/Überforderung/Abgrund).

    Sachsen (berufliches Gymnasium)

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Woyzeck - Georg Büchner
    3. Irrungen, Wirrungen - Theodor Fontane
    4. Der gute Mensch von Sezuan - Bertolt Brecht
    5. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck
    6. Der Trafikant - Robert Seethaler

    Abitur Mischung aus Klassiker-Drama, sozialem Drama, realistischem Roman, epischem Theater und Gegenwarts-/Erinnerungsroman; zusätzlich Coming-of-age im historischen Kontext.

    Sachsen-Anhalt

    Abitur

    1. (keine fest benannte landesweite Pflichtlektüre veröffentlicht; Themenfelder)

    Abitur Schwerpunktsetzung über Themenfelder (u. a. Literatur um 1900; Sprache in politisch-gesellschaftlichen Kontexten), ohne feste Einzeltitel.

    Schleswig-Holstein

    Abitur

    1. Der zerbrochne Krug - Heinrich von Kleist
    2. Heimsuchung - Jenny Erpenbeck

    Abitur Recht/Gerechtigkeit und historische Tiefenschichten eines Ortes – umgesetzt über Drama und Gegenwartsroman.

    Thüringen

    Abitur

    1. (keine fest benannte landesweite Pflichtlektüre veröffentlicht; Orientierung am gemeinsamen Aufgabenpool)

    Abitur In der Praxis häufig Orientierung am gemeinsamen Aufgabenpool; landesweite Einzeltitel je nach Vorgabe/Handreichung nicht einheitlich ausgewiesen.

    Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

    Abitur

    1. (Quelle aktuell technisch nicht abrufbar; Beteiligung am gemeinsamen Aufgabenpool bekannt)

    Abitur Land beteiligt sich am länderübergreifenden Aufgabenpool; konkrete, veröffentlichte Einzeltitel konnten hier nicht ausgelesen werden.

    Rheinland-Pfalz

    Abitur

    1. (keine landesweit einheitliche Pflichtlektüre; schulische Auswahl)

    Abitur Keine landesweite Einheitsliste; Auswahl kann schul-/kursbezogen erfolgen.




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